Voltage-gated potassium channels (VGKCs) represent a group of tetrameric signaling proteins with several functions, including modulation of neuronal excitability and neurotransmitter release. Moreover, VGKCs give a key contribution to the generation of the action potential. VGKCs are complexed with other neuronal proteins, and it is now widely known that serum autoantibodies directed against VGKCs are actually directed against the potassium channel subunits only in a minority of patients. By contrast, these autoantibodies more commonly target three proteins that are complexed with alpha-dendrotoxin-labeled potassium channels in brain extracts. These three proteins are contactin-associated protein-2 (Caspr-2), leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 (LGI-1)-protein and the protein Tag-1/contactin-2. Neoplasms are detected only in a minority of seropositive patients for VGKC complex-IgG and do not significantly associate with Caspr-2 or LGI-1. Among all the cancers described in association with VGKC complex-IgG, lung carcinoma, thymoma, and hematologic malignancies are the most commonly detected. We will review all the major neurological conditions associated with VGKC complex-IgG. These include Isaacs’ syndrome, Morvan syndrome, limbic encephalitis, facio-brachial dystonic seizures, chorea and other movement disorders, epilepsy, psychosis, gastrointestinal neuromuscular diseases, a subacute encephalopathy that mimics Creutzfeldt-Jakob prion disease both clinically and radiologically and autoimmune chronic pain. The vast majority of these conditions are reversible by immunotherapy, and it is becoming increasingly recognized that early diagnosis and detection of VGKC complex-IgG is critical in order to rapidly start the treatment. As a result, VGKC complex-IgG are now part of the investigation of patients with unexplained subacute onset of epilepsy, memory or cognitive problems, or peripheral nerve hyperexcitability syndromes.

Fabry disease (FD) is a rare, progressive, multisystem and highly debilitating disease. FD is an X-linked lysosome storage disorder that results in α-galactosidase A deficiency. The subsequent accumulation of glycosphingolipids is more evident in vascular endothelium and smooth-muscle cells. The resulting effect of the deposition is generalized inflammation and vasculopathy, which can also affect the central and peripheral nervous system. FD progresses with kidney dysfunction, angiokeratoma of the skin, cardiomyopathy, cerebrovascular events and neurological disorders. In the present review, the neurological manifestations of FD are summarized with emphasis on cerebral vasculopathy, cochlear nerve dysfunction, psychiatric and cognitive symptoms, autonomic dysfunction and peripheral neuropathy. Enzyme replacement therapy is also discussed in the light of its more prominent effects when administered early in life, which make it essential to diagnose FD as soon as possible.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common form of motor neuron disease and is a progressive and devastating neurodegenerative disease that affects both lower and upper motor neurons. Muscle cramps, which are characterized by a sudden, painful, involuntary contraction of muscles, are not rare in ALS patients. However, muscle cramps do not normally present early in ALS and therefore not used for the initial diagnosis of ALS. In this paper the authors present a case of ALS with initial manifestation of progressive painful muscle cramps in the absence of muscle weakness. This case might help people to recognize atypical foremost presentations of ALS and therefore formulate effective therapies.

Cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is a central nervous system infectious disease caused by Cryptococcus. It is the most common fungal infection in the central nervous system, accounting for about 48% of fungal infection. The disease occurs mainly in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients and concentrates in the immunocompromised people without AIDS. There are nearly one million new cases of CM each year, and about 70% of them died. In China, CM occurs mainly in people without AIDS and there is an increasing trend in recent years. Early diagnosis and treatment is the key to reducing morbidity and mortality associated with CM. The diagnosis mainly depends on laboratory examination such as morphological examination, fungal culture and antigen detection. History, clinical manifestation and imaging examination are the important parts of auxiliary examination. The initial combined antifungal treatment is emphasized, and the principle of fractional treatment including induction, consolidation and maintenance therapy should be followed. The high intracranial pressure must be reduced actively at the same time. In addition, it is proved that the novel immunotherapy combined with antifungal agents can improve the curative effect and limit the chance of antimicrobial resistance. Large-scale clinical trials are needed for further study.

Rupture of intracranial aneurysms is the most common cause of nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage, but the intricate neuroinflammatory processes which contribute to aneurysm pathophysiology are not well-understood. Mounting evidence has implicated the complement cascade in the progression of aneurysms from their formation to rupture. In this article, we identify and review studies that have sought to determine the role of the complement system in the aneurysm pathogenesis. The studies were generally conducted by immunhistological analyses on aneurysm tissue collected intraoperatively, and multiple components of the complement cascade and its modulators were identified in specific regions of the aneurysm wall. The results of the studies suggest that the complement cascade is locally upregulated and disinhibited in the perianeurysmal environment, and that it contributes to chronic as well as acute immunological damage to the aneurysm wall. In the future, understanding the mechanisms at work in complement-mediated damage is necessary to leading the development of novel therapies.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are part of the innate immune system and can initiate an immune response upon exposure to harmful microorganisms. Neuronal TLRs are considered to be part of an established framework of interactions between the immune system and the nervous system, the major sensing systems in mammals. TLRs in the nervous system and neuronal TLRs are suspected to be important during inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this review is to offer an overview of the current knowledge about TLRs in neurodegenerative pathologies, with a focus on Parkinson’s disease. More research focusing on the role of TLRs in health and disease of the nervous system is needed and remains to be explored.

Fabry disease (FD) is a rare, progressive, multisystem and highly debilitating disease. FD is an X-linked lysosome storage disorder that results in α-galactosidase A deficiency. The subsequent accumulation of glycosphingolipids is more evident in vascular endothelium and smooth-muscle cells. The resulting effect of the deposition is generalized inflammation and vasculopathy, which can also affect the central and peripheral nervous system. FD progresses with kidney dysfunction, angiokeratoma of the skin, cardiomyopathy, cerebrovascular events and neurological disorders. In the present review, the neurological manifestations of FD are summarized with emphasis on cerebral vasculopathy, cochlear nerve dysfunction, psychiatric and cognitive symptoms, autonomic dysfunction and peripheral neuropathy. Enzyme replacement therapy is also discussed in the light of its more prominent effects when administered early in life, which make it essential to diagnose FD as soon as possible.

Aim: The aim was to investigate the infectious conditions of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS).

Methods: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 20 patients with MS and 20 with other neurological diseases (OND) were tested with indirect immunofluorescence for anti-EBV capsid antigen (EBV-CA) immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgG affinity for anti-EBV-CA, anti-EBV-CA immunoglobulin M (IgM), anti-EBV early antigen (EBV-EA) IgG and anti-EBV nuclear antigen (EBNA) IgG. According to the pattern of antibodies in CSF, infection rates of acute, chronic, primary, recurrent, and past infections were analyzed in the two groups of patients.

Results: There were no significant differences in anti-EBV-CA, anti-EBC-EA, and anti-EBNA antigen IgG in CSF between MS and OND patients (P > 0.05). The positive rate of low affinity for anti-EBV-CA IgG in MS patients was significantly higher than that for OND patients (75% vs. 40%, P < 0.05). Furthermore, significant differences in the positive rate of anti-EBV-CA IgM were found between MS and OND patients (70% vs. 25%, P < 0.05). Of the MS patients, 75% were in an EBV acute infection state compared with 40% of OND patients (P < 0.05).

Conclusion: Acute infection of EBV closely correlates with the occurrence of MS.

Acquired isolated palatal palsy is a rare disease. It is commonly seen in children. It usually presents with acute onset nasal regurgitation of fluids, rhinolalia, and palatal asymmetry. Many causes of this disease, such as infections, trauma, tumor, and brainstem lesions, etc., have been reported. However, the most plausible explanation is immunological/ischemic damage to the affected nerve. After ruling out major potential causes of this disease, the damage is often considered to be idiopathic in nature. This disease has a benign self-limiting course with excellent recovery. In accordance with a hypothesized immunological basis for this condition, treatment with steroids results in significant improvement in its clinical features.

Over the past decade the discovery of novel forms of encephalitis associated with neuronal surface antibodies had changed the paradigms for diagnosing and treating disorders that were previously mischaracterized. Recognition of clinical syndromes, consistent methods of diagnosis, and early targeted immunotherapy can lead to a favorable outcome in diseases that may be associated with significant disability or death if left untreated. Here the conditions associated with neuronal surface antibodies are briefly reviewed, some general aspects of these syndromes are considered and guidelines that could help in the recognition of these disorders are suggested. Furthermore, a diagnostic algorithm to detect and characterize neuronal cell surface autoantibodies is suggested and some of the caveats of serum testing are outlined. Future directions will involve the identification of novel autoantibodies, the standardization of methods to detect and characterize them, as well as evaluation of the most efficacious therapeutic strategies in patients with established diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis.

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an acquired autoimmune disease affecting synaptic transmission via the neuromuscular junction mainly due to the presence of auto-antibodies targeting acetylcholine receptors. Ocular or generalized MG is clinically diagnosed when the extra-ocular muscles or other muscle groups beyond the extra-ocular muscles are involved. MG occurs in both sexes at any ages from all races but shows a wide variability in incidence and prevalence. Differences in clinical phenotypes of MG patients between West and East countries have been observed. Herein, we review the current concept on epidemiology, classification, and generalized progression in MG, mainly focusing on the differential features from mainland China.

Aim: The aim was to validate a newly developed methodology of semi-automatic image analysis to analyze microglial morphology as marker for microglial activation in ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (IBA-1) stained brain sections.

Methods: The novel method was compared to currently used analysis methods, visual characterization of activation stage and optical density measurement, in brain sections of young and aged rats that had undergone surgery or remained naïve.

Results: The cell body to cell size ratio of microglia was strongly correlated to the visual characterization activation stage. In addition, we observed specific surgery and age-related changes in cell body size, size of the dendritic processes and cell body to cell size ratio.

Conclusion: The novel analysis method provides a sensitive marker for microglial activation in the rat brain, which is quick and easy to perform and provides additional information about microglial morphology.

Aim: The aim was to validate a newly developed methodology of semi-automatic image analysis to analyze microglial morphology as marker for microglial activation in ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (IBA-1) stained brain sections.

Methods: The novel method was compared to currently used analysis methods, visual characterization of activation stage and optical density measurement, in brain sections of young and aged rats that had undergone surgery or remained naïve.

Results: The cell body to cell size ratio of microglia was strongly correlated to the visual characterization activation stage. In addition, we observed specific surgery and age-related changes in cell body size, size of the dendritic processes and cell body to cell size ratio.

Conclusion: The novel analysis method provides a sensitive marker for microglial activation in the rat brain, which is quick and easy to perform and provides additional information about microglial morphology.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are part of the innate immune system and can initiate an immune response upon exposure to harmful microorganisms. Neuronal TLRs are considered to be part of an established framework of interactions between the immune system and the nervous system, the major sensing systems in mammals. TLRs in the nervous system and neuronal TLRs are suspected to be important during inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this review is to offer an overview of the current knowledge about TLRs in neurodegenerative pathologies, with a focus on Parkinson’s disease. More research focusing on the role of TLRs in health and disease of the nervous system is needed and remains to be explored.

Several million people with chronic liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis) show neurological alterations, named hepatic encephalopathy (HE) with cognitive and motor alterations that impair quality of life and reduces life span. Inflammation acts synergistically with hyperammonemia to induce cognitive and motor alterations in patients with chronic liver disease and minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE). Previous studies in animal models have suggested that neuroinflammation is a major player in HE. This would also be the case in patients with liver cirrhosis or hepatitis C with HE. Rats with MHE show microglial activation and neuroinflammation that is associated with cognitive impairment and hypokinesia. The anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen reduces microglial activation and neuroinflammation and restores cognitive and motor functions in rats with MHE. Chronic hyperammonemia per se induces neuroinflammation. Both peripheral inflammation and hyperammonemia would contribute to neuroinflammation in chronic liver failure. Therefore, neuroinflammation may be a key therapeutic target to improve the cognitive and motor alterations in MHE and overt HE. Identifying new targets to reduce neuroinflammation in MHE without inducing secondary effects would serve to develop new therapeutic tools to reverse the cognitive and motor alterations in patients with HE associated with chronic liver diseases

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common type of glioma and is associated with a very poor prognosis. The standard treatment includes radiotherapy concurrent with temozolomide, however recently the Food and Drug Administration approved bevacizumab for use in patients with progressive glioblastoma following prior therapy. The limited number of treatment options points to the need for novel effective therapeutic approaches. A promising approach is the use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in GBM treatment. However, the results from the majority of clinical trials using TKIs are not very encouraging. One growing area is the development of tumor-homing peptides that resemble the integrin recognition sequence RGD. In this article, the role of integrins and focal adhesion kinase in malignant glioma is reviewed, and an experimental study is proposed that will apply a strategy for peptide-mediated delivery of compounds deep into tumor parenchyma using tumor-homing peptides.

Aim: Patients with glioblastomas demonstrate well-documented immunological impairments including decreased numbers of mature dendritic cells (DCs). Recent data identified karyopherin a2 (KPNA2), a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling receptor, as diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for gliomas. The aim of this ongoing study is to correlate parameters of immunity and nucleocytoplasmic transport in glioblastoma patients.

Methods: We preoperatively collected serum from 17 patients with glioblastomas and determined DC subsets (HLA DR+ Lin-, CD34-, CD45+, CD123+, CD11+ were analyzed) using a 6-color flow cytometry panel. Expression levels of KPNA2 and nuclear accumulation of p53 were evaluated semi-quantitatively by immunohistochemistry. O⁶-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) and isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 (IDH-1) status were assessed by pyrosequencing and immunohistochemistry, respectively.

Results: Median expression levels for both KPNA2 and p53 were 5-10%. IDH-1-R132H mutation and MGMT promoter hypermethylation was detected in 3/16 and 1/9 patients, respectively. Mean counts of total mature DCs, myeloid DCs and plasmacytoid DCs were 9.6, 2.1, 3.4 cells/μL. A preliminary analysis suggests an association between low KPNA2 nuclear expression and increased numbers of mature DCs. However, this correlation did not reach statistical significance so far (P = 0.077).

Conclusion: Our preliminary data may indicate a role of KPNA2 in the impaired maturation of DCs observed in glioblastoma patients.

Aim: Several epidemiological studies have shown an inverse correlation between allergy and brain cancer. The purpose of this study was to compare the serum IgE levels between patients with gliomas and nonglial tumors and their possible prognostic role.

Methods: A total of 84 patients with intracranial tumors were included in this study. At clinical presentation, estimation of serum IgE levels was assessed by nephelometry. Detailed information regarding the history of allergies was collected by interview.

Results: Of the 84 cases, 42 were gliomas, 23 were meningiomas, 16 were metastases and 3 were primary central nervous system lymphomas. Patients with high-grade glioma had lower IgE levels than patients with low-grade glioma. Patients with glioma and meningioma had statistical significant lower serum IgE levels than patients with metastases. Patients with glioblastoma with serum IgE levels greater than 24 U/mL had a better survival.

Conclusion: Patients with glioma and meningioma had lower IgE levels than patients with metastatic lesions. A prognostic role of serum IgE levels was found in glioblastoma. Further studies in larger patient series are required in order to verify our preliminary observations.

High-grade gliomas are the most common type of brain tumors. Of these, glioblastoma account for 60-70% and despite treatment carries a dismal prognosis. Postoperative surgical site infection has been associated with prolonged survival. Herewith, we present a case of glioblastoma and a case of anaplastic oligoastrocytoma that developed postoperative infection of the surgical site and had prolonged survival. A thorough literature review is also presented.

Glioblastoma (GB) is the most common and aggressive form of primary brain tumors in adults with a universally poor prognosis despite multimodal management including surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Among the novel therapeutic strategies, immunotherapy deserves particular attention with its potential to evoke biologic response and harness the host immune system. Considerable success achieved for other tumors has elicited great enthusiasm and prompted research on immunotherapy for GB. While the central nervous system has traditionally been thought of as an immune-privileged site, our understanding is being refined with emerging evidence. Several studies have been conducted and more are under way to establish the role of immunotherapy in management of GB. Immunotherapy of GB has yet resulted in mixed success with conflicting research findings, emphasizing the need for extensive study before its integration into routine clinical practice. Although there is a lot of room for improvement, immunotherapy for GB may be feasible and serve as a viable management strategy broadening and strengthening the therapeutic armamentarium to combat this deadly disease. Herein, we present a concise review of immunotherapy for GB.